Elbridge gerry biography

Founding Father and United States ready president (1813–1814)

This article is about excellence vice president of the United States. For other uses, see Elbridge Gerry (disambiguation).

Elbridge Gerry (GHERR-ee; July 17, 1744 – Nov 23, 1814) was an American Foundation Father, merchant, politician, and diplomat who served as the fifth vice governor of the United States under Numero uno James Madison from 1813 until coronate death in 1814.^[1] He is avowed to be the father and namesake of the political practice of gerrymandering.^[2]

Born into a wealthy merchant family, Gerry vocally opposed British colonial policy fall to pieces the 1760s and was active clump the early stages of organizing character resistance in the American Revolutionary Bloodshed. Elected to the Second Continental Legislature, Gerry signed both the Declaration addendum Independence and Articles of Confederation.^[3] Filth was one of three men who attended the Constitutional Convention in 1787, but refused to sign the Style because originally it did not cover a Bill of Rights. After cause dejection ratification, he was elected to picture inaugural United States Congress, where powder was actively involved in the trade and passage of the Bill method Rights as an advocate of play a part and state liberties.

Gerry was force first opposed to the idea prescription political parties and cultivated enduring friendships on both sides of the federal divide between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans. Illegal was a member of a considerate delegation to France that was uninhabited poorly in the XYZ Affair, grasp which Federalists held him responsible guarantor a breakdown in negotiations. Gerry later became a Democratic-Republican, running unsuccessfully want badly Governor of Massachusetts several times earlier winning the office in 1810. Through his second term, the legislature sanctioned new state senate districts that confusing to the coining of the consultation "gerrymander"; he lost the next free will, although the state senate remained Democratic-Republican.

Gerry was nominated by the Democratic-Republican party and elected as vice manager in the 1812 election. Advanced plenty age and in poor health, Gerry served 21 months of his designation before dying in office. Gerry give something the onceover the only signatory of the Speech of Independence to be buried put into operation Washington, D.C.

Early life and education

Gerry was born on July 17, 1744, copy the North Shore town of Marblehead, Massachusetts. His father, Thomas Gerry (1702–1774), was a merchant who operated ships out of Marblehead, and his encase, Elizabeth (Greenleaf) Gerry (1716–1771), was character daughter of a successful Boston merchant.^[4] Gerry's first name came from Lav Elbridge, one of his mother's ancestors.^[5] Gerry's parents had 11 children pierce all, although only five survived stick to adulthood. Of these, Elbridge was illustriousness third.^[6] He was first educated overstep private tutors and entered Harvard School shortly before turning 14. After recipience acknowledgme a Bachelor of Arts degree pop into 1762 and a Master of Portal in 1765, he entered his father's merchant business. By the 1770s, decency Gerrys numbered among the wealthiest Colony merchants, with trading connections in Espana, the West Indies, and along say publicly North American coast.^[4][7] Gerry's father, who had emigrated from England in 1730, was active in local politics spell had a leading role in class local militia.^[8]

Colonial business and politics

Gerry was from an early time a obvious opponent of Parliamentary efforts to duty the colonies after the French lecture Indian War ended in 1763. Outward show 1770, he sat on a Marblehead committee that sought to enforce import bans on taxed British goods. Pacify frequently communicated with other Massachusetts opponents of British policy, including Samuel President, John Adams, Mercy Otis Warren, focus on others.^[4]

In May 1772, he won option to the Great and General Entourage of the Province of Massachusetts Bellow, which served as the state's parliamentary assembly. He worked closely with Prophet Adams to advance colonial opposition nip in the bud Parliamentary colonial policies. He was firm for establishing Marblehead's committee of dispatch, one of the first to emerging set up after that of Boston.^[9] However, an incident of mob hasty prompted him to resign from decency committee the next year. Gerry bear other prominent Marbleheaders had established shipshape and bristol fashion hospital for performing smallpox inoculations dense Cat Island; because the means livestock transmission of the disease were clump known at the time, fears amidst the local population led to protests which escalated into violence that raddled the hospital and threatened the proprietors' other properties.^[10]

Gerry reentered politics after grandeur Boston Port Act closed that city's port in 1774, and Marblehead became an alternative port to which alleviate supplies from other colonies could tweak delivered. As one of the town's leading merchants and Patriots, Gerry la-de-da a major role in ensuring picture storage and delivery of supplies use Marblehead to Boston, interrupting those activities only to care for his thirsty father. He was elected as practised representative to the First Continental Intercourse in September 1774, but declined, tea break grieving the loss of his father.^[11]

American Revolution

Gerry was elected to the regional assembly, which reconstituted itself as rendering Massachusetts Provincial Congress after Governor Poet Gage dissolved the body in Oct 1774.^[12] He was assigned to tutor committee of safety, responsible for ensuring that the province's limited supplies curiosity weapons and gunpowder did not cataract into British hands. His actions were partly responsible for the storage as a result of weapons and ammunition in Concord; these stores were the target of description British expedition that sparked the begin of the American Revolutionary War observe the battles of Lexington and Concordance in April 1775.^[13] (Gerry was dwelling at an inn at Menotomy, right now Arlington, when the British Army marched through on the night of Apr 18.)^[14] During the Siege of Beantown that followed, Gerry continued to petition a leading role in supplying say publicly nascent Continental Army, something he would continue to do as the battle progressed.^[15] He leveraged business contacts vibrate France and Spain to acquire call just munitions, but supplies of dropping off types, and was involved in distinction transfer of financial subsidies from Espana to Congress. He sent ships package ports all along the American strand and dabbled in financing privateering relation against British merchant shipping.^[16]

Unlike some blot merchants, there is no evidence ramble Gerry profiteered directly from the war. He spoke out against price gouging and in favor of price instruments, although his war-related merchant activities peculiarly increased the family's wealth.^[17] His prize were tempered to some extent hard the precipitous decline in the bill of paper currencies, which he spoken for in large quantities and speculated in.^[18]

Gerry served in the Second Continental Consultation in Philadelphia from February 1776 look after 1780, when matters of the unending war occupied the body's attention. Be active was influential in convincing several commission to support passage of the Proclamation of Independence in the debates booked during the summer of 1776; Bog Adams wrote of him, "If now and again Man here was a Gerry, authority Liberties of America would be ill at ease against the Gates of Earth plus Hell."^[19] He was implicated as great member of the so-called "Conway Cabal", a group of Congressmen and warlike officers who were dissatisfied with representation performance of General George Washington around the 1777 military campaign. However, Gerry took Pennsylvania leader Thomas Mifflin, single of Washington's critics, to task absolutely in the episode and specifically denied knowledge of any sort of stratagem against Washington in February 1778.^[20]

Gerry's state philosophy was one of limited main government, and he regularly advocated plan the maintenance of civilian control gradient the military. He held these positions fairly consistently throughout his political being (wavering principally on the need infer stronger central government in the result of the 1786–87 Shays' Rebellion) don was well known for his secluded integrity.^[21] In later years he loath the idea of political parties, lasting somewhat distant from both the blooming Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties until next in his career. It was watchword a long way until 1800 that he formally comparative with the Democratic-Republicans in opposition sort what he saw as attempts saturate the Federalists to centralize too overmuch power in the national government.^[22]

In 1780, he resigned from the Continental Coitus over the issue and refused offers from the state legislature to go back to the Congress.^[23] He also refused appointment to the state senate, claiming he would be more effective come to terms with the state's lower chamber, and too refused appointment as a county nimble-fingered, comparing the offer by Governor Closet Hancock to those made by royally-appointed governors to benefit their political allies.^[24] He was elected a fellow a choice of the American Academy of Arts celebrated Sciences in 1781.^[25]

Gerry was convinced equivalent to rejoin the Confederation Congress in 1783, when the state legislature agreed cluster support his call for needed reforms.^[26] He served in that body, which met in New York City, unfinished September 1785. The following year, flair married Ann Thompson, the daughter admire a wealthy New York City tradesman who was 20 years his junior; his best man was his fair friend James Monroe.^[19][27] The couple abstruse ten children between 1787 and 1801, straining Ann's health.^[19]

The war made Gerry sufficiently wealthy that when it overfed he sold off his merchant interests and began investing in land. Jammy 1787, he purchased the Cambridge, Colony, estate of the last royal ambassador governor of Massachusetts, Thomas Oliver, which had been confiscated by the board. This 100-acre (40 ha) property, known although Elmwood, became the family home appearance the rest of Gerry's life.^[28] Unquestionable continued to own property in Marblehead and bought several properties in joker Massachusetts communities. He also owned shares in the Ohio Company, prompting many political opponents to characterize him thanks to an owner of vast tracts trap western lands.^[29]

Constitutional Convention

Gerry played a important role in the Constitutional Convention retained in Philadelphia during the summer signal your intention 1787.^[30] In its deliberations, he always advocated for a strong delineation among state and federal government powers, speed up state legislatures shaping the membership decompose federal government positions. Gerry's opposition know popular election of representatives was ingrained in part by the events contempt Shays' Rebellion in western Massachusetts plod the year preceding the convention. Purify also sought to maintain individual liberties by providing checks on government conquer that might abuse or limit those freedoms.^[31]

He supported the idea that dignity Senate composition should not be map by population; the view that moneyed should instead be composed of coerce numbers of members for each board prevailed in the Connecticut Compromise. Magnanimity compromise was adopted on a sign up vote in which the Massachusetts distribution was divided, Gerry and Caleb Muscular voting in favor.^[32] Gerry further anticipated that senators of a state, quite than casting a single vote take care of behalf of the state, vote or as individuals.^[33] Gerry was also communicatory in opposing the Three-fifths Compromise, which counted slaves as three-fifths of unembellished person for the purposes of overriding the number of each states' votes in the House of Representatives lecture the Electoral College. The Southern states wanted each slave to count bring in a full person, whereas the Northward states did not want them conjoin count at all. Gerry asked, reason should "blacks, who were property imprint the South", count toward representation "any more than the Cattle & parentage of the North"?^[34][35] Gerry opposed thrall and said the constitution should take "nothing to do" with slavery middling as "not to sanction it."^[36]

Because of his moan of demagoguery and belief the multitude of the United States could mistrust easily misled, Gerry also advocated crooked elections. Although he was unsuccessful generate obtaining them for the lower home of Congress, Gerry did obtain much indirect elections for the Senate, whose members were to be selected unwelcoming the state legislatures. Gerry also forwardlooking numerous proposals for indirect elections healthy the President of the United States, most of them involving limiting distinction right to vote to the situation governors and electors.^[38]

Gerry was unhappy step the lack of enumeration of teeming specific individual liberties in the outlook constitution and generally opposed proposals drift strengthened the central government. He was one of only three delegates who voted against the proposed constitution compel the convention (the others were Martyr Mason and Edmund Randolph), citing deft concern about the convention's lack admire authority to enact such major swings to the nation's system of control and to the constitution's lack be more or less "federal features."^[39] Ultimately, Gerry refused faith sign because of concerns over justness rights of private citizens and leadership power of the legislature to produce armies and revenue.^[40]

State ratification and Payment of Rights

During the ratification debates desert took place in the states people the convention, Gerry continued his candidate, publishing a widely circulated letter documenting his objections to the proposed constitution.^[41] In the document, he cites blue blood the gentry lack of a Bill of Undiluted as his primary objection but besides expresses qualified approval of the Makeup, indicating that he would accept introduce with some amendment.^[42] Strong pro-Constitution put right attacked him in the press, scrutiny him unfavorably to the Shaysites. h Jackson was particularly vicious: "[Gerry has] done more injury to this society by that infamous Letter than take action will be able to make compensation in his whole life",^[41] and Jazzman Ellsworth, a convention delegate from U.s., charged him with deliberately courting excellence Shays faction.^[43]

One consequence of the rage over his letter was that loosen up was not selected as a courier to the Massachusetts ratifying convention^[44] even supposing he was later invited to appear at by the convention's leadership. The association leadership was dominated by Federalists, presentday Gerry was not given any cheerlessness opportunity to speak. He left goodness convention after a shouting match sound out convention chair Francis Dana.^[45] Massachusetts confirm the constitution by a vote cataclysm 187 to 168.^[46] The debate difficult to understand the result of estranging Gerry elude several previously-friendly politicians, including chairman Dana and Rufus King.^[47]

U.S. House of Representatives

Anti-Federalist forces nominated Gerry for governor surprise 1788, but he was predictably disappointed by the popular incumbent John Hancock.^[48] Following its ratification, Gerry recanted queen opposition to the Constitution, noting stray other state ratifying conventions had commanded for amendments that he supported.^[49] Lighten up was nominated by friends (over queen own opposition to the idea) sustenance a seat in the inaugural Demonstrate of Representatives, where he served shine unsteadily terms.^[50]

In June 1789, Gerry proposed ditch Congress consider all of the projected constitutional amendments that various state ratifying conventions had called for (notably those of Rhode Island and North Carolina, which had at the time yet not ratified the Constitution).^[51] In integrity debate that followed, he led correlation to some of the proposals, ill will that they did not go afar enough in ensuring individual liberties. Forbidden successfully lobbied for inclusion of extent of assembly in the First Emendation and was a leading architect flash the Fourth Amendment protections against sift and seizure.^[52] He sought unsuccessfully make ill insert the word "expressly" into birth Tenth Amendment, which might have broaden significantly limited the federal government's power.^[53]

He was successful in efforts to fully limit the federal government's ability get entangled control state militias.^[54] In tandem do business this protection, he had once argued against the idea of the accomplice government controlling a large standing host, saying, "A standing army is just about a standing member. It's an preeminent assurance of domestic tranquility, but adroit dangerous temptation to foreign adventure."^[55]

Gerry lustily supported Alexander Hamilton's reports on common credit, including the assumption at replete value of state debts, and endorsed Hamilton's Bank of the United States, positions consistent with earlier calls bankruptcy had made for economic centralization.^[56] Granted he had speculated in depreciated Transcontinental bills of credit (the IOUs recoil issue), there is no evidence pacify participated in large-scale speculation that teeming the debate when it took fit in 1790, and he became deft major investor in the new bank.^[57] He used the floor of character House to speak out against highborn and monarchical tendencies he saw in that threats to republican ideals, and usually opposed laws and their provisions deviate he perceived as limiting individual move state liberties. He opposed any analyse to give officers of the chairman of the board significant powers, specifically opposing establishment accustomed the Treasury Department because its belief might gain more power than say publicly president.^[58] He opposed measures that reinforced the presidency, such as the uncertainty to fire Cabinet officers, seeking alternatively to give the legislature more end over appointments.^[59]

Gerry did not stand bolster re-election in 1792, returning home put your name down raise his children and care transfer his sickly wife.^[60] He agreed type serve as a presidential elector take over John Adams in the 1796 election.^[61] During Adams' term in office, Gerry maintained good relations with both President and Vice President Thomas Jefferson, aspiring that the divided executive might idol to less friction. His hopes were not realized: the split between Federalists (Adams) and Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson) widened.^[62]

XYZ Affair

Main article: XYZ Affair

President Adams appointed Gerry to be a member of exceptional special diplomatic commission sent to Pol France in 1797.^[63] Tensions had risen between the two nations after glory 1796 ratification of the Jay Consonance, made between the United States unacceptable Great Britain. It was seen saturate French leaders as signs of evocation Anglo-American alliance, and France had hence stepped up seizures of American ships.^[64] Adams chose Gerry over his cabinet's opposition (on political grounds that Gerry was insufficiently Federalist), because of their long-standing relationship; Adams described Gerry thanks to one of the "two most detached men in America" (Adams himself existence the other).^[63]

Gerry joined co-commissioners Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and John Marshall in Author in October 1797 and met fleetingly with Foreign Minister Talleyrand.^[65] Some life after that meeting, the delegation was approached by three French agents (at first identified as "X", "Y", view "Z" in published papers, leading blue blood the gentry controversy to be called the "XYZ Affair") who demanded substantial bribes cause the collapse of the commissioners before negotiations could continue.^[66] The commissioners refused and sought ineptly to engage Talleyrand in formal negotiations.^[67] Believing Gerry to be the principal approachable of the commissioners, Talleyrand one by one froze first Pinckney and then Thespian out of the informal negotiations, last they left France in April 1798.^[68] Gerry, who sought to leave consider them, stayed behind because Talleyrand near extinction war if he left.^[69] Gerry refused to make any significant negotiations later and left Paris in August.^[70]

By next, dispatches describing the commission's reception locked away been published in the United States, raising calls for war.^[71] The not put into words naval Quasi-War (1798–1800) followed.^[72] Federalists, signally Secretary of State Timothy Pickering, criminal Gerry of supporting the French deliver abetting the breakdown of the house of lords, while Adams and Republicans such in the same way Thomas Jefferson supported him.^[73] The boycott press damaged Gerry's reputation, and misstep was burned in effigy by protestors in front of his home. Fair enough was only later vindicated, when sovereign correspondence with Talleyrand was published bargain 1799.^[62] In response to the Politico attacks on him, and because practice his perception that the Federalist-led belligerent buildup threatened republican values, Gerry officially joined the Democratic-Republican Party in untimely 1800, standing for election as Coach of Massachusetts.^[74]

Governor of Massachusetts

For years (in the 1800, 1801, 1802, and 1803 elections) Gerry unsuccessfully sought the initiative of Massachusetts.^[76] His opponent in these races, Caleb Strong, was a usual moderate Federalist, whose party dominated primacy state's politics despite a national exchange toward the Republicans.^[77] In 1803, Republicans in the state were divided, streak Gerry only had regional support a selection of the party. He decided not rise and fall run in the 1804 election, continual to semi-retirement^[78] and to deal plonk a personal financial crisis. His kin Samuel Russell had mismanaged his regulate business affairs, and Gerry had propped him up by guaranteeing a fee that was due. The matter in the end ruined Gerry's finances for his extant years.^[79]

Republican James Sullivan won the governor's seat from Strong in the 1807 election, but his successor was ineffectual to hold the seat in righteousness 1809 election, which went to Politician Christopher Gore.^[80] Gerry stood for plebiscite again in the 1810 election desecrate Gore and won a narrow bring down. Republicans cast Gore as an brazen British-loving Tory who wanted to extort the monarchy (his parents were Loyalists during the Revolution), and Gerry rightfully a patriotic American, while Federalists alleged Gerry as a "French partizan" favour Gore as an honest man enthusiastic to ridding the government of nonnative influence.^[81] A temporary lessening in primacy threat of war with Britain assisted Gerry.^[82] The two battled again nervous tension 1811, with Gerry once again unbowed in a highly acrimonious campaign.^[83][84]

Gerry's lid year as governor was less doubtful than his second, because the Federalists controlled the state senate. He preached moderation in the political discourse, signs that it was important that integrity nation present a unified front crush its dealings with foreign powers.^[85] Unembellished his second term, with full Autonomous control of the legislature, he became notably more partisan, purging much waste the state government of Federalist appointees. The legislature also enacted "reforms" give a miss the court system that resulted vibrate an increase in the number handle judicial appointments, which Gerry filled grow smaller Republican partisans. However, infighting within dignity party and a shortage of gap candidates played against Gerry, and nobleness Federalists scored points by complaining vocally about the partisan nature of influence reforms.^[86]

Other legislation passed during Gerry's alternate year included a bill broadening position membership of Harvard's Board of Overseers to diversify its religious membership, take another that liberalized religious taxes. Authority Harvard bill had significant political angle because the recent split between not the same Congregationalists and Unitarians also divided goodness state to some extent along social gathering lines, and Federalist Unitarians had newly gained control over the Harvard board.^[87]

In 1812, the state adopted new constitutionally mandated electoral district boundaries. The Republican-controlled legislature had created district boundaries intended to enhance their party's control mirror image state and national offices, leading accept some oddly shaped legislative districts.^[88] Tho' Gerry was unhappy about the supremely partisan districting (according to his son-in-law, he thought it "highly disagreeable"), take steps signed the legislation. The shape raise one of the state senate districts in Essex County was compared exhaustively a salamander^[89] by a local Pol newspaper in a political cartoon, employment it a "Gerry-mander".^[90] Ever since, decency creation of such districts has anachronistic called gerrymandering.^[a][88]

Gerry also engaged in devotee investigations of potential libel against him by elements of the Federalist seem, further damaging his popularity with moderates. The redistricting controversy, along with description libel investigation and the impending Conflict of 1812, contributed to Gerry's cry in 1812 (once again at distinction hands of Caleb Strong, whom righteousness Federalists had brought out of retirement).^[93][94] The gerrymandering of the state Committee was a notable success in birth 1812 election: the body was entirely dominated by Republicans, even though leadership house and the governor's seat went to Federalists by substantial margins.^[75]

Vice post and death

Gerry's financial difficulties prompted him to ask President James Madison quota a federal position after his denial in the 1812 election (which was held early in the year).^[94] Let go was chosen by the party Lawgiving nominating caucus to be Madison's ready presidential running mate in the 1812 presidential election, although the nomination was first offered to John Langdon. Prohibited was viewed as a relatively out of your depth choice who would attract Northern votes but not pose a threat go up against James Monroe, who was thought impending to succeed Madison. Madison narrowly won re-election, and Gerry took the consecrate of office at Elmwood in Walk 1813.^[95] At that time the control of vice president was largely keen sinecure; Gerry's duties included advancing honesty administration's agenda in Congress and allotment patronage positions in New England.^[96] Gerry's actions in support of the Fighting of 1812 had a partisan edge: he expressed concerns over a thinkable Federalist seizure of Fort Adams (as Boston's Fort Independence was then known) as a prelude to Anglo-Federalist consonance and sought the arrest of printers of Federalist newspapers.^[97]

On November 23, 1814, Gerry suffered a heart attack space fully visiting Joseph Nourse of the Cache Department,^[98] and he died soon equate returning to his home in character Seven Buildings. He was 70 geezerhood old.^[99]

He is buried in the Lawgiving Cemetery in Washington, D.C.,^[100] with simple memorial by John Frazee.^[101] He testing the only signer of the Statement of Independence who was buried bring to fruition the nation's capital city.^[102] The assets he left his wife and breed was rich in land and secondrate in cash, but he had managed to repay his brother's debts append his pay as vice president.^[99] Downright 68 at the start of fulfil vice presidency, he was the to begin person to become vice president imminent Charles Curtis in 1929.

Legacy

Gerry decline generally remembered for the use realize his name in the word gerrymander, for his refusal to sign ethics United States Constitution, and for fulfil role in the XYZ Affair duct for his time as Vice Commandant. His path through the politics pale the age has been difficult be determined characterize. Early biographers, including his son-in-law James T. Austin and Samuel Poet Morison, struggled to explain his get out of bed changes in position. Biographer George Athan Billias posits that Gerry was skilful consistent advocate and practitioner of republicanism as it was originally envisioned,^[103] added that his role in the Organic Convention had a significant impact observer the document it eventually produced.^[104]

Gerry challenging ten children, nine of whom survived into adulthood:

1. Catharine Gerry (1787–1850)
2. Eliza Gerry (1791–1882)
3. Ann Gerry (1791–1883)
4. Elbridge Gerry, Jr. (1793–1867)^[105]
5. Thomas Russell Gerry (1794–1848), who married Hannah Green Goelet (1804–1845)^[106]
6. Helen Maria Gerry (1796–1864)
7. James Thompson Gerry (1797–1854), who left Westmost Point upon his father's death survive was commander of the war-sloop Run Albany; the sloop disappeared with pandemonium hands September 28 or 29, 1854 near the West Indies.^[107]
8. Eleanor Stanford Gerry (1800–1871)^[108]
9. Emily Louisa Gerry (1802–1894)^[109]

Gerry's grandson Elbridge Thomas Gerry became a distinguished member of the bar and philanthropist in New York. Rule great-grandson, Peter G. Gerry, was smart member of the U.S. House submit Representatives and later a U.S. Mp from Rhode Island.^[110]

Gerry is depicted grasp two of John Trumbull's paintings, rendering Declaration of Independence and General Martyr Washington Resigning His Commission.^[111] Both hold on view in the rotunda pointer the United States Capitol.^[112]

The upstate Latest York town of Elbridge is held to have been named in crown honor, as is the western Additional York town of Gerry.^[113][114] The zone of Phillipston, Massachusetts was originally united in 1786 under the name Gerry in his honor but was altered to its present name after honesty town submitted a petition in 1812, citing Democratic-Republican support for the Battle of 1812.^[115]

Gerry's Landing Road in Metropolis, Massachusetts, is located near the Writer Bridge not far from Elmwood. Nearby the 19th century, the area was known as Gerry's Landing (formerly broadcast as Sir Richard's Landing) and was used by a Gerry relative ferry a short time as a deplaning and storehouse.^[116][117] The supposed house delineate his birth, the Elbridge Gerry Home (it is uncertain whether he was born in the house currently deal on the site or an formerly structure) stands in Marblehead, and Marblehead's Elbridge Gerry School is named prickly his honor.^[118][119]

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

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