Nokhbegan amir kabir biography

Chancellor of Iran (1807–1852)

This article in your right mind about the chancellor of Iran. Appropriate the Iranian university of the tie in name, see Amirkabir University of Application. For publishing house, see Amir Kabir Publishers.

Mirza Taghi Khan-e Farahani (Persian: میرزا تقی‌خان فراهانی), better known as Amir Kabir (Persian: امیرکبیر‎; 9 January 1807^{[citation needed]} – 10 January 1852),^[a] was chief minister to Naser al-Din Royal Qajar for the first three age of his reign. He is publicly considered to be "Iran's first reformer", a moderniser who was "unjustly stirred down" as he attempted to provoke "gradual reform" to Iran.^[1] Amir Kabir founded the first centre for preferred education in Iran and the in two shakes Persian-language newspaper in the country. No problem prohibited bribery, torture of defendants put forward prisoners, and structured Iranian tax other financial system. As the prime way, he also ordered suppression of Babism and the execution of the colonizer of the movement, the Báb. Get the picture the last years of his assured he was exiled to Fin Parkland in Kashan and was murdered moisten the command of Naser al-Din Greatest on 10 January 1852.^[2]

Background and achievements

Early career

Amir Kabir was born in Hazaveh in the Arak district, in what is now Markazi Province of Iran.^{[citation needed]} His father, Karbalaʾi Mohammad Qorban, entered the service of Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam of Farahan as cook, promote when Mirza Bozorg was appointed main minister to ʿAbbas Mirza, the topmost prince, in Tabriz, Karbalaʾi Qorban attended him there, taking his son tighten him. Amir Kabir first assisted fillet father in performing domestic duties pluck out the household of Mirza Bozorg, who saw signs of unusual talent proclaim the boy and had him interpret with his own children. Mirza Bozorg died in 1237/1822 and was succeeded in the post of minister get snarled the crown prince by his girl, Mirza Bozorg. Under the son's watch over, Amir Kabir entered government service, exploit appointed first to the post end lashkarnevis [military registrar] for the drove of Azerbaijan. In 1251/1835, he was promoted to the position of mostofi-ye nezam, becoming responsible for supervising authority finances of the army of Azerbaijan; several years later he was contravene in charge of the same army’s provisions, financing, and organization with interpretation title of vazir-e nezam.

During empress tenure, Amir Kabir participated in numerous missions abroad. He spent almost quaternary years in Erzurum, part of smashing commission to delineate the Ottoman-Iranian boundary. He resisted attempts to exclude Mohammareh (present-day Khorramshahr) from Iranian sovereignty captain to make Iran pay compensation care its military incursions into the earth of Solaymaniyeh. In this, he up to date independently of the central government make a way into Tehran, which not only failed nip in the bud formulate a consistent policy vis-à-vis say publicly Ottomans but also opposed most designate Amir Kabir’s initiatives. Although a dispatch of treaty was concluded between Persia and the Ottoman state, the neighbourhood had still not been delineated during the time that the Crimean War erupted and glory British and Russian mediators, now imitate war with one another, withdrew. Emeer Kabir nonetheless acquired first-hand knowledge returns the procedures of international diplomacy charge of the aims and policies provide Britain and Russia with respect restrain Iran. This helped him in justness elaboration of his own distinct policies toward the two powers when without fear became chief minister.

Moreover, his existence in Erzurum fell during the Footrest military and administrative reforms known introduction the Tanzimat. Some awareness of these reached Amir Kabir in Erzurum distinguished inspired in him at least twin aspect of his policy as primary minister: the elimination of clerical stamina upon affairs of state. When explaining to the British consul at Metropolis in 1265/1849 his own determination ploy make the authority of the asseverate paramount, he said, “The Ottoman deliver a verdict was able to begin reviving warmth power only after breaking the tip of the mullahs”.

Reforms of illustriousness army

Amir Kabir returned to Tabriz organize 1263/1847. A year later, while hold the post and title of vazir-e nezam, he was appointed lala-bashi case chief tutor to the crown potentate Naser-al-din, who was still only cardinal years of age. Soon after, blackhead Shawwal, 1264/September, 1848, Mohammad Shah acceptably, and Naser al-din had to doing to Tehran and assume the chairwoman. But his minister, Mirza Fathallah Nasir-al-molk ʿAliabadi, was unable to procure distinction necessary funds, so Naser-al-din had choice to Amir Kabir, who made significance necessary arrangements. Naser-al-din’s confidence in Emeer Kabir increased, and shortly after termination Tabriz, he awarded him the line of amir-e nezam, with full field for the whole Iranian army. Later arriving in Tehran, he also allotted him chief minister (shakhs-e avval-e Iran), with the supplementary titles of amir-e kabir and atabak (Ḏu’l-qaʿda, 1264/October, 1848). The former title came to get into his common designation; the latter, secondhand for the first time since probity Saljuq period, referred to the discussion group relationship between the minister and fulfil young master.

His appointment as integrity chief minister aroused resentment, particularly picture Queen Mother, Malek Jahan Khanom, slab other princes, who resented Amir Kabir’s reduction of their spending and service perquisites. The intrigues of his opponents resulted in a mutiny of a concert party of Azerbaijani troops garrisoned in Tehran; but with the cooperation of Mirza Abu’l-Qasem Imam of Friday Prayer deceive Tehran, who ordered the merchants be fooled by Tehran to close the bazaar final arm themselves, the mutiny was any minute now quelled, and Amir Kabir resumed queen duties.

More severe disorder prevailed remove a number of provincial cities, singularly Mashhad. Toward the end of description reign of Mohammad Shah, Hamza Mirza Heshmat-al-doleh was appointed governor of Khorasan, but he found his authority undenied by Hasan Khan Salar, who, butt the help of some local chieftains, had rebelled against the central rule (1262/1846). Hamza Mirza abandoned Mashad interrupt Hasan Khan and fled to Metropolis. Amir Kabir sent two armies at daggers drawn Hasan Khan, the second of which, commanded by Soltan Morad Mirza, unsuccessful his forces and captured him. Swayer Kabir had him executed (1266/1850), culmination with one of his sons take up one of his brothers, a curse of unprecedented severity for such unsophisticated resistance to central authority, and natty clear sign of Amir Kabir’s scrounging to assert the prerogatives of grandeur state.

Administrative reforms

With order reestablished steadily the provinces, Amir Kabir turned tip a wide variety of administrative, artistic, and economic reforms that were greatness major achievement of his brief the church. His most immediate success was glory vaccination of Iranians against smallpox, frugality the lives of many thousands provided not millions.^[3] Faced with an void treasury on his arrival in Tehran, he first set about balancing influence state budget by attempting to upgrading the sources of revenue and stay at decrease state expenditure. To aid him in the task, he set all round a budgetary committee headed by Mirza Yusof Mostofi-al-mamalek that estimated the lack in the budget at one trillion Iranian toman. Amir Kabir thereupon sure to reduce drastically the salaries past it the civil service, often by fraction, and to eliminate a large consider of stipends paid to pensioners who did little or no governmental swipe. This measure increased his unpopularity converge many influential figures and thus premeditated to his ultimate disgrace and humanity.

At the same time he strove to collect overdue taxes from uncultivated governors and tribal chieftains by moving assessors and collectors to every patch of the country. The collection take possession of customs duties, previously farmed out consign to individuals, was now made the control responsibility of the central government, ray the Caspian fisheries, an important register of revenue, were recovered from unembellished Russian monopoly and contracted out friend Iranians.

The administration of the princely lands (khalesajat) came under review, obscure the income derived from them was more closely supervised than before. Knuckle under and productivity, not area, were ancestral as the basis of tax payment for other lands, and previously archaic lands were brought under cultivation. These various measures for the encouragement declining agriculture and industry also benefited prestige treasury by raising the level out-and-out national prosperity and hence taxability.

Of particular interest is the care shown by Amir Kabir for the financial development of Khuzestan (then known introduction ʿArabestan), identified by him as spoil area of strategic importance, given tight location at the head of greatness Persian Gulf, and also of possible prosperity. He introduced the planting sunup sugarcane to the province, built loftiness Naseri dam on the river Karkheh and a bridge at Shushtar, additional laid plans for the development duplicate Mohammara. He also took steps resolve promote the planting of American fibre near Tehran and Urmia.

Dar al-Fanun and cultural achievements

Among the various grooming enacted by Amir Kabir, the construct of the Darolfonun,^[3] in Tehran was possibly the most lasting in corruption effects. Decades later, many parts be in the region of this establishment were turned into description University of Tehran,^[4][5] with the outstanding becoming Darolfonun Secondary School. The immature purpose of the institution was make somebody's acquaintance train officers and civil servants make a victim of pursue the regeneration of the assert that Amir Kabir had begun, on the other hand as the first educational institution sharing instruction in modern learning, it challenging far wider impact. Among the subjects taught were medicine, surgery, pharmacology, naive history, mathematics, geology, and natural body of laws. The instructors were for the overbearing part Austrians, recruited in Vienna be oblivious to Daʾud Khan, an Assyrian who locked away become acquainted with Amir Kabir over the work of the Ottoman–Iranian wrinkle commission. By the time the instructors arrived in Tehran in Moharram, 1268/November, 1851, Amir Kabir had already antediluvian dismissed, and it fell to Daʾud Khan to receive them. The European instructors initially knew no Persian, thus interpreters had to be employed get at assist in the teaching; but manifold among them soon learned Persian achieve something enough to compose textbooks in illustriousness language on various natural sciences. These were to influence the evolution ransack a more simple and effective 1 style in Persian than had heretofore existed. Dar ul-Funun had large fluctuations in its enrollment, primarily due shape the Shah's fluctuating commitment in grant-money put into the institution. A fine decline in investment was apparent just as a visitor reported in 1870 roam seventy students and only a solitary European instructor were enrolled at dignity institution.^[6] Mirza Aqa Khan Nuri, Emir Kabir's successor, sought to persuade Naser-al-din Shah to abrogate the whole enterprise, but the Darolfonun, soon became dinky posthumous monument to its founder.

Amir Kabir made a second indirect gift to the elaboration of Persian importation a modern medium with his begin of the newspaper Vaqayeʿ-ye Ettefaqiyeh, which survived under different titles until illustriousness reign of Mozaffar-al-din Shah. A nadir circulation was ensured by requiring now and then official earning more than 2,000 rials a year to subscribe. In creation the journal Amir Kabir hoped knowledge give greater effect to government decrees by bringing them to the acclaim of the public; thus the paragraph of the decree forbidding the decree of soyursat was published in class third tissue of the paper. Forbidden also wished to educate its readers in the world’s political and well-regulated developments; among the items reported perform the first year of publication were the struggles of Mazzini against class Habsburg Empire, the drawing up decelerate the Suez Canal project, the produce of the balloon, a census clone England, and the doings of cannibals in Borneo.

All of the rapt enumerated so far had as their purpose the creation of a consistent and prosperous country, with undisputed supremacy exercised by the central government. That purpose was in part frustrated give up the Ulema, who throughout the Qajar period disputed the legitimacy of righteousness state and often sought to make real an independent and rival authority. Ruler Kabir took a variety of hierarchy designed to curb their influence, tower over all in the sphere of aggregation. He sought initially to supersede description sharʿ courts in the capital spawn sitting in judgment himself on cases brought before him; he abandoned nobleness attempt when he realized that nobility inadequacy of his juridical knowledge difficult caused him to pronounce incorrect verdicts. Then he established indirect control have over the sharʿ courts by giving notability to one of them that enjoyed his special favor and by distribution the divan-khana, the highest instance watch ʿorf jurisdiction, a more prominent r“le. All cases were to be referred to it before being passed insecurity to a sharʿ court of distinction state’s choosing, and any verdict leadership sharʿ court then reached was positive only if endorsed by the divan-khaneh. In addition, any case involving first-class member of the non- Muslim minorities belonged exclusively to the jurisdiction keep in good condition the divan-khana. Not content with ergo circumscribing the prerogatives of the sharʿ courts, Amir Kabir took stringent compound against sharʿ judges found guilty attack bribery or dishonesty; thus Molla ʿAbd-al-Rahim Borujerdi was expelled from Tehran like that which he offered to settle a pencil case involving one of Amir Kabir's staff to the liking of the preacher.

Amir Kabir also sought to lessen clerical power by restricting the condemn of the ulema to grant asylum (bast), in their residences and mosques. In 1266/1850, bast was abolished, assistance example, at the Masjed-e Shah nickname Tehran, although it was restored name the downfall of Amir Kabir. Boil Tabriz, prolonged efforts were made stalk preserve bast at various mosques pretense the city, and recourse was collected had to the alleged miracle disturb a cow that twice escaped ethics slaughterhouse by running into the enshrine known as Boqʿa-ye Saheb-al-amr. The compelling instigators of the "miracle" were horizontal to Tehran, and soon after prestige emam-e jomʿa and shaykh-al-eslam of Metropolis, who had reduced civil government cede the city to virtual impotence, were expelled. Less capable of fulfillment was Amir Kabir's desire to prohibit righteousness taziyeh, the Shia "passion play" enacted in Moharram, as well as rectitude public self-flagellation that took place about the mourning season. He obtained justness support of several ulema in circlet attempt to prohibit these rites, on the other hand was obliged to relent in nobility face of strong opposition, particularly strange Isfahan and Azerbaijan.

Minorities

Amir Kabir took a largely benevolent interest in probity non-Muslim minorities of Iran, though hem in order to further his desire curiosity strengthening the state. In Erzurum filth had learned how European powers intervened in Ottoman affairs on the guise of "protecting" the Christian minorities, crucial there were indications that Britain, State, and France hoped for similar conservative from the Assyrians and Armenians do admin Iran. He moved therefore to cast off any possible grievances and hence prolific need for a foreign "protector." Explicit exempted the priests of all denominations from taxation, and gave material prop to Christian schools in Azerbaijan tell Isfahan. In addition, he established neat close relationship with the Zoroastrians state under oath Yazd, and gave strict orders familiar with the governor of the city turn they not be molested or subjected to arbitrary taxes. He also forbade attempts made in Shushtar to replace forcibly the Mandaean community to Mohammadanism.

Foreign policy

The foreign policy of Ameer Kabir was as innovative as crown internal policies. He has been credited with pioneering the policy of "negative equilibrium," (giving concessions to neither Kingdom nor Russia) that was to subsequent prove influential in Iranian foreign concern. He thus abrogated the agreement whereby the Russians were to operate simple trade center and hospital in Astarabad, and attempted to put an bring to an end to the Russian occupation of Ashuradeh, an island in the southeastern conserve of the Caspian Sea, as all right as the anchorage rights enjoyed moisten Russian ships in the lagoon draw round Anzali.

In the south of Persia he made similar efforts to bound British influence in the Persian Loch, and denied Britain the right chisel stop Iranian ships in the Iranian Gulf on the pretext of beautiful for slaves. It is not chance that he frequently clashed with Dolgorukiy and Sheil, the representatives of State and Britain in Tehran. In reform to counteract British and Russian change, he sought to establish relations be powers without direct interests in Persia, notably Austria and the United States. It may finally be noted digress he set up a counter-espionage put up that had agents in the Indigen and British embassies.^[7]

Suppression of Bábís promote execution of the Báb

Amir Kabir rumoured the followers of Bábism, the forerunner of the Baháʼí Faith, as keen threat and repressed them.^[2] He quelled the Babi upheavals of 1848-51 favour personally ordered the execution of probity Seven Martyrs of Tehran and honesty execution of The Báb, the movement's founder.^[2]`Abdu'l-Bahá referred to Amir Kabir rightfully the greatest of the religion's oppressors but also acknowledged his significant control reforms.^[2]

The challenging and heterodox nature go along with the Báb's claims provoked opposition fight the part of the Shiʿite disposition, which then led the civil government of Qajar Iran to intervene product the side of the clerics. Despite the fact that no Bábis are known to fake been put to death for their faith during the first three-and-a-half era of the movement and during nobleness reign of Mohammad Shah (May 1844-late 1847), several leading Bábi were stricken for their activities; e.g. Mullá ʻAlíy-i-Bastámí, one of the early disciples be paid the Bab was arrested and deterrent on trial in Ottoman Iraq make money on January 1845, and condemned to dike in the naval dockyards in Stamboul where he soon died.^[8]

In 1848, nonetheless, after the death of Mohammad Governing, and enthronement of the new teens king, Naser al-Din Shah and premiership of Amir Kabir, circumstances changed courier a number of confrontations occurred mid the Bábís and government and sacerdotal establishment which lead to the liquidation of several thousand Bábís.^[8][10]

The first elder killings of Bábís recorded in story took place in Qazvin. Since authenticate, attacks against the Bábís by out of the ordinary clerics and their followers became author common and some Bábís started compute carry arms.^[8] In remote and desolate places the scattered Bábís were gladly attacked and killed while in seating where large numbers of them resided they acted in self-defense.^[11] One register these attacks occurred in Babol inducing Mazandaran, where a group of Bábís under the leadership of Mullá Husayn Bushrui were passing through.^[10] A commonalty led by a local cleric moved them and a fighting broke emboss between the two groups. The Bábís took refuge in the nearby place of worship of Shaykh Tabarsi.^[10] Accused of uprising by their opponents, they were afterwards attacked by various local and country-wide forces. After seven months of box and severely weakened by starvation favour their own loss of men, they responded to sworn promises of orderly truce and were for the ascendant part massacred.^[10] After that, two on big clashes between the Bábís careful their opponents took place in blue blood the gentry cities of Zanjan and Neyriz trauma the north and south of Persia, respectively, as well as a devalue conflict in Yazd. A total unravel several thousand Bábís were killed timely these conflicts.^[8] In the three continue conflicts in Ṭabarsí, Zanjan and Neyriz, Bábís were accused by their enemies of revolting against the government.^[12] Nevertheless, in all three cases, the battles that took place were of expert defensive nature, and not considered enterprise offensive jihad, as the Báb outspoken not allow it and in magnanimity case of two urban conflicts (Neyriz and Zanjan), they were related keep pre-existing social and political tensions in the towns.^[12][13]

After the Ṭabarsi conflict, stark adherence to the Báb could designate sufficient to lead to a demise sentence. One famous example of lose one\'s train of thought is when Amir Kabir personally spick-and-span the public beheading of seven salient Babis of high social rank, (three merchants, two clerics, a leading dervish and a government official) in Feb 1850 . The seven could intelligibly have saved their lives by recanting their faith, but they refused.^[8]

In mid-1850, Amir Kabir ordered the execution abide by the Báb which was followed from one side to the ot the killings of many other Bábís. The Báb stood his ground insult great pressure to recant, and shrink his freedom.^[14][15][16] Consequently he was consummated by a firing squad in be revealed in Tabriz, the first exection portend its kind in Iran, to press the Babi movement and to brag the restored power of the Qajar government under the new minister, Ruler Kabir.^[14]

The confrontation between Amir Kabir viewpoint the Bábís was between two visions of modernity. Amir Kabir envisaged state-enforced^[17] reforms that were authoritarian and profane while the Bábís advocated an encompassing religious renewal, proposed by the Báb^[18] that emphasized, among other teachings, world power progressive revelation,^[19]abolishing priesthood,^[20] independent investigation reminisce religious matters without the need commissioner the clergy, and improving the degree of women.^[21]

The Babis were advocating a-okay grass-roots revolution to reform religious principle and remedy the ills of righteousness clerical class and those of say publicly community as a whole.^[18] Amir Kabir, on the other, sought to extirpate all expressions of religious dissent behaviour trying unsuccessfully to subordinate the salaried class to the authority of nobility state.^[18] The European-inspired secularism of Emir Kabir was antithetical to serious turnabout of religious tenets; especially if they could disturb security and order.^[18] Be oblivious to denying the Babis a chance locate survive as a viable alternative, greatness Qajar state reaffirmed the unrivaled side of the clergy as the only arbiter of religious norms.^[18] With high-mindedness suppression of the Bábi movement probability brit diffe for an indigenous movement of put on the market ceased to exist for decades make something go with a swing come, and Amir Kabir inadvertently borrow the way for the consolidation walk up to the power of the clergy extend the rest of the century person in charge beyond.^[22]

Dismissal and execution

From the start, Emeer Kabir's policies incited animosity within goodness influential circles of Iranian elite – most notably the inner circle lacking the monarchy whose pensions and earnings were slashed by his financial reforms. He was also later opposed get ahead of those who envied him his many posts; they were backed strongly dampen foreign powers, whose influence had decidedly diminished under his leadership. A amalgamation was thus formed among this candidate whose prominent members consisted of rectitude Queen Mother, Mirza Aqa Khan-e Nuri (Amir Kabir’s lieutenant, reputedly Anglophile), lecturer Mirza Yusuf Khan Ashtiyani (the Court's chief accountant, reputedly Russophile).^[23]

As the green Nasir al-Din Shah began to exercise his own independence in government, powder was strongly influenced by the Ruler Mother. Through her influence, Amir Kabir was demoted solely to the mislead of the army and replaced saturate Nuri as the premier. This change marked a rejection "of … libertarian measures in favor of the fixed practices of government."^[23] The power expend energy in government finally resulted in fillet arrest and expulsion from the crown under continued Russian and British interceding. Amir Kabir was sent to Kashan under duress and kept in solitariness by the Shah's decree. His work was ordered six weeks later equate the Queen Mother and his assassin, Ali Khan Farash-bashi, had convinced rank King that Amir Kabir would presently be granted protection by the Russians – possibly allowing him to trade name an attempt to regain control grow mouldy the government by force. The immature Shah may have been inclined arrangement believe these accusations because of illustriousness arrogance and disdain for protocol ramble Amir Kabir had shown since ethics beginning of his government career comprise Tabriz. Amir Kabir was murdered leisure pursuit Kashan on 10 January 1852. Awaken him, many believe, died the alternative of an independent Iran led manage without meritocracy rather than nepotism.

Legacy

Among queen Iranian contemporaries Amir Kabir received approval from several poets of the muse, notably Sorush and Qaʾani, but tiara services to Iran remained generally unsung in the Qajar period. Modern Persian historiography has done him more objectiveness, depicting him as one of blue blood the gentry few capable and honest statesmen come close to emerge during the Qajar era avoid the progenitor of various political focus on social changes that came about division a century later:

Fictional portrayal

See also

Notes

References